Table of Content

1. Executive summary and conclusions
1.1 Purpose and scope of this report
1.2 Methodology of this analysis
1.3 Nine primary market conclusions including battery vs batteryless storage forecast 2024-2044
1.4 Thirteen primary conclusions: batteryless technologies 2024-2044
1.5 Battery-free storage and storage elimination roadmaps 2024-2044
1.5.1 Battery-free storage vs storage elimination
1.5.2 Long Duration Energy Storage LDES roadmap 2024-2044
1.6 Batteryless market forecasts and, for comparison, lithium-ion batteries 2024-2044
1.6.1 Batteryless storage for electricity-to-electricity: terminology and trends
1.6.2 Batteryless storage short vs long duration 2023-2044
1.6.3 Batteryless energy storage vs lithium-ion battery market $ billion 2023-2044: table, graphs, explanation
1.6.4 Lithium-ion battery market by three storage levels 2023-2044: table
1.6.5 Lithium-ion battery market by three storage levels $ billion 2023-2044: graphs
1.6.6 Batteryless energy storage by three storage levels $ billion 2023-2044: table
1.6.7 Batteryless energy storage by three storage levels $ billion 2023-2044: graphs and explanation
1.6.8 Batteryless storage market by 13 technology categories $ billion 2023-2044 table
1.6.9 Batteryless storage market by 13 technology categories $ billion 2023-2044 area graph and 2044 pie chart
1.6.10 Infrastructure enabling client devices without storage: global yearly 6G RIS sales by five types and total $ billion 2024-2044 table
1.6.11 Global yearly 6G RIS sales by five types $ billion 2023-2043: area graph with explanation
1.6.12 Batteryless backscatter RFID and EAS tags market $ billion 2023-2044: table and graphs
1.7 SWOT appraisal of batteryless storage technologies
1.8 SWOT appraisal of circuits and infrastructure that eliminate storage

2. Introduction
2.1 Megatrends of electrification, battery adoption and battery elimination
2.1.1 Overview
2.1.2 Electronics and small electrical devices
2.2 Pressures on batteries 2024-2044
2.3 Information and communication technology ICT power issues including 6G
2.4 WPT, WIET, SWIPT
2.5 Internet of Things and its power problems and solutions
2.6 Trending to 100% zero-emission renewable power and increased intermittency of supply
2.6.1 Overview
2.6.2 Renewable energy by country and effect on Long Duration Energy Storage LDES choices
2.7 Batteryless storage toolkit
2.7.1 Options with little growth potential: inductor, conventional capacitor, flywheel
2.7.2 Options with major growth potential: supercapacitors and their variants, heavy engineering

3. Wireless electronics and electrics battery elimination
3.1 Overview
3.2 The trend to self-powered sensors
3.3 Passive repeater antennas, metamaterial passive 6G reflectors
3.4 Backscatter – EAS and passive RFID then more sophisticated forms
3.5 Wireless information and energy transfer WIET for 6G and IoT
3.5.1 WIET/ SWIPT
3.5.2 Wireless powered IoE for 6G
3.6 Energy harvesting with demand management
3.7 Battery-free electronics: sensors, IOT nodes, phones, cameras, small drones
3.7.1 Overview and self-powered sensors
3.7.2 Sensors and biometric access by harvesting man-made radiation
3.7.3 IOT node strategies for battery-free
3.7.4 Mobile phone and electronic stylus
3.7.5 Battery-free camera using excess light
3.7.6 EnOcean building controls “no wires, no batteries, no limits” pitched as IoT
3.7.7 Battery-free drones as sensors and IOT
3.7.8 The Everactive ultra-low power circuits contribution to IoT
3.7.9 Intermittency-tolerant electronics BFree
3.8 Battery-free power electrics
3.8.1 Overview: hand cranked electrics, capacitor dynamos etc.
3.8.2 Vehicle charging direct from solar
3.9 SWOT appraisal of circuits and infrastructure that eliminate storage

4. Strategies for fewer and smaller batteries
4.1 Overview
4.2 Battery elimination circuits BEC in electronics reducing number of batteries needed
4.3 Battery reduction by V2G, V2H, V2V and vehicle charging directly from solar panels
4.4 Demand management
4.4.1 Overview
4.4.2 Lessons from wireless sensor networks
4.4.3 Lessons from active RFID
4.5 Less intermittent zero emission electricity generation technologies
4.5.1 Types if intermittency of supply
4.5.2 Less intermittent single sources
4.5.3 Multi-mode and multiple-source harvesting to reduce intermittency
4.5.4 Multi-mode harvesting research pipeline
4.5.5 Combining different harvesting technologies in one device: research pipeline

5. Energy harvesting μW-GW for battery reduction and elimination in 6G, IOT, wearables and other systems
5.1 Overview
5.2 Energy harvesting system design
5.2.1 Elements of a harvesting system
5.2.2 Ultra-low power 6G, IoT and other client devices to reduce harvesting need
5.3 Energy harvesting system detail with improvement strategies 2023-2043
5.4 Energy harvesting devices and structures needing energy harvesting μW-GW 2023-2043
5.5 14 families of energy harvesting technology emerging μW-GW 2023-2043
5.6 A closer look at nine forms of energy harvesting 2023-2043
5.7 Mechanical harvesting including acoustic in detail
5.8 Sources of mechanical energy and harvesting options 2023-2043
5.9 Electrodynamic harvesting advances
5.9.1 Kinetron electrodynamic (“electrokinetic”) harvesters typically harvesting infrasound
5.9.2 Transpiration electrokinetic harvesting for battery-free power supply
5.10 Sources of electromagnetic energy and harvesting options 2023-2043
5.11 Strategies for increasing photovoltaic output per unit volume and area 2023-2043
5.12 Photovoltaics feasible and affordable in more places: extreme vehicles, smartwatches
5.13 Importance of flexible laminar energy harvesting 2023-2043
5.13.1 Overview
5.13.2 Flexible energy harvesting: biofuel cell skin sensor system
5.14 Other examples : piezoelectric, thermoelectric, magnetoelectric, photovoltaic

6. Capacitors, supercapacitors, pseudocapacitors, lithium-ion capacitors
6.1 The place of capacitors and their variants
6.2 Spectrum of choice – capacitor to supercapacitor to battery
6.3 Research pipeline: pure supercapacitors
6.4 Research pipeline: hybrid approaches
6.5 Research pipeline: pseudocapacitors
6.6 Actual and potential major applications of supercapacitors and their derivatives 2024-2044
6.6.1 Overview
6.6.2 Aircraft and aerospace
6.6.3 Electric vehicles: AGV, material handling, car, truck, bus, tram, train
6.6.4 Grid, microgrid, peak shaving, renewable energy and uninterrupted power supplies
6.6.5 Medical and wearables
6.6.6 Military: Laser cannon, railgun, pulsed linear accelerator weapon, radar, trucks, other
6.6.7 Power and signal electronics, data centers
6.6.8 Welding
6.7 103 supercapacitor companies assessed in 10 columns

7. Large capacity battery-free storage for 6G/IoT data centers, base stations, buildings, microgrid and grid Long Duration Energy Storage LDES
7.1 Overview
7.2 How cost becomes one reason for solar dominating grid and microgrid generation
7.3 How dominance of solar starts at the smaller systems
7.4 Energy storage for grids, microgrids and buildings 2024-2044
7.5 Big picture of LDES technology potential
7.6 LDES toolkit
7.7 Equivalent efficiency vs storage hours for LDES technologies
7.8 Technologies for largest number of LDES sold for grids, microgrids, buildings
7.9 Available sites vs space efficiency for LDES technologies
7.10 LDES roadmap 2024-2033
7.11 Lessons from LDES projects completing 2023-2033
7.12 LDES roadmap 2033-2044
7.13 LCOS $/kWh trend vs storage and discharge time
7.14 LDES power GW trend vs storage and discharge time
7.15 Days storage vs rated power return MW for LDES technologies
7.16 Days storage vs amount MWh for LDES technologies
7.17 Potential by technology to supply LDES at peak power after various delays
7.18 Compressed air energy storage CAES
7.18.1 Overview
7.18.2 Parameter appraisal of CAES for LDES
7.18.3 Technology options
7.18.4 CAES manufacturers, projects and research
7.18.5 CAES companies: Hydrostor and others
7.18.6 SWOT appraisal of CAES for LDES
7.19 Liquefied gas energy storage: Liquid air LAES or CO2
7.19.1 Overview
7.19.2 Principle of a liquified air energy storage system
7.19.3 Parameter appraisal of LAES for LDES
7.19.4 Increasing the LAES storage time and discharge duration
7.19.5 LAES supplier assessments with Zhar Research appraisal: Highview Power, Phelas
7.19.6 LAES research: Mitsubishi Hitachi, Linde, European Union, Others
7.19.7 SWOT appraisal for LAES for LDES
7.18.8 Energy Dome Italy – carbon dioxide storage
7.18.9 SWOT appraisal of Energy Dome liquid CO2 for LDES
7.20 Solid gravity energy storage
7.20.1 Overview
7.20.2 Energy Vault Switzerland, USA with Zhar Research appraisal
7.20.3 Gravitricity UK with Zhar Research appraisal
7.20.4 SinkFloatSolutions France with Zhar Research appraisal
7.20.5 Parameter appraisal of SGES for LDES
7.20.6 SWOT appraisal of SGES for LDES
7.21 Advanced pumped hydro energy storage APHES
7.21.1 Overview
7.21.2 Quidnet Energy USA: pressurised hydro underground with Zhar Research appraisal
7.21.3 Underwater pumped hydro StEnSea, Ocean Grazer with Zhar Research appraisals
7.21.4 Cavern Energy USA – brine in salt caverns with Zhar Research appraisal
7.21.5 Mine Storage Sweden – Hydro in mines with Zhar Research appraisal
7.21.6 RheEnergise UK hills and heavy liquid with Zhar Research appraisal
7.21.7 SWOT appraisal of pumped hydro reinvented for LDES
7.22 SWOT appraisal of batteryless storage technologies

8. The proposed hydrogen economy and its use for delayed electricity
8.1 Overview
8.2 Estimates of hydrogen sources and uses
8.3 Finessing the origin of hydrogen
8.4 Status of the hydrogen economy in 2024
8.5 Hydrogen storage options and adoption
8.6 Primary options for distributing and using zero emission power