Table of Content

1. Executive summary and conclusions
1.1 Purpose and scope of this report
1.2 Methodology of this analysis
1.3 Definition and purpose
1.4 18 Primary conclusions
1.5 Current ZED successes
1.6 Optimal technology strategies for ZED 2024-2044
1.7 Progress of telecommunications generations to more ZED opportunities
1.8 Progress towards sensor ZED 2024-2044
1.9 Roadmap of ZED and its enabling technologies 2024-2044
1.10 Market forecasts 2024-2044
1.10.1 Backscatter ZED units sold billion RFID, EAS, 6G SWIPT 2024-2044
1.10.2 Backscatter ZED $ billion RFID, EAS, 6G SWIPT 2024-2044
1.10.3 Energy storage market battery vs batteryless $ billion 2023-2044
1.10.4 Batteryless storage short vs long duration 2023-2044
1.10.5 Batteryless energy storage vs lithium-ion battery market $ billion 2023-2044: table, graphs, explanation
1.10.6 Lithium-ion battery market by three storage levels 2023-2044
1.10.7 Batteryless energy storage by three storage levels $ billion 2023-2044: table
1.10.8 Batteryless storage market by 13 technology categories $ billion 2023-2044 table
1.10.9 6G infrastructure enabling client devices without storage: global yearly 6G RIS sales by five types and total $ billion 2024-2044
1.10.10 Global yearly 6G RIS sales by five types $ billion 2023-2043: area graph with explanation
1.10.11 Sensors global value market for seven application sectors $ billion 2023-2044:
1.10.12 Sensor value market % by 6 input media 2024, 2034, 2044: table with sub-categories and reasons
1.10.13 Sensor value market % by six input media 2024-2044
1.10.14 Smartphone sensor market units, unit price, value market $ billion 2023-2044
1.10.15 Smartphone units sold globally 2023-2044 if 6G is successful
1.10.16 X-reality hardware market with possible 6G impact 2024-2044

2. Definition, examples and future need for zero energy devices
2.1 Overview
2.2 Reasons for the trend to ZED
2.3 Different definitions of zero energy device ZED
2.4 Context of ZED: overlapping and adjacent technologies and examples of long-life energy independence
2.5 Electrical autonomy examples that last for the life of their host equipment
2.6 The increasing electricity consumption of electronics and ZED strategies
2.7 Strategies to reduce power consumption and battery issues
2.8 On-board energy harvesting for ZED is being simplified to save weight, size, cost and reduce the number of failure modes and toxigens
2.9 Stopping the increasing demand of electronics for grid-based electricity
2.10 Internet of Things: lessons of failure and possible route to success
2.11 Introduction to energy harvesting
2.12 Why ZED sensors are a strong emerging need
2.13 Importance of flexible, laminar and 2D energy harvesting and sensing 2024-2044
2.14 Self-powered and integrated sensors
2.15 How telecommunications generations are progressing to more ZED opportunities

3. ZED opportunity with 6G Communications RIS, CPE and client devices
3.1 Overview
3.2 Why do we need 6G?
3.3 Disruptive 6G aspects
3.4 Arguments against, challenges ahead and objectives of key players
3.5 The cost challenge
3.6 3GPP vision of options for 6G ZED and wireless powered IoE for 6G
3.7 How 6G transmission hardware will achieve much better performance than 5G
3.8 Recent hardware advances that can aid 6G 2024-2044
3.9 6G Communications opportunities for equipment and edge devices to become ZED
3.10 Specific ZED needs in 6G communications
3.11 6G ZED in the research pipeline
3.11.1 Machine Type Communication (MTC)
3.11.2 Zero-energy air interface for advanced 5G and for 6G
3.11.3 Zero-energy devices empowered 6G opportunities
3.11.4 First real-time backscatter communication demonstrated for 6G in 2023
3.11.5 Further reading – 13 other recent research papers relevant to 6G ZED
3.12 SWOT appraisal of 6G Communications as currently understood
3.13 6G general roadmap 2024-2044

4. ZED progress with wireless sensors, IOT, personal and other electronics
4.1 Overview of basics and progress towards sensor ZED 2024-2044
4.2 IOT nodes and concepts
4.3 Market evolution: sensor parameters measured become multi-faceted, demand changes radically
4.4 Progress to sensor ZED: self-powered and self-sensing devices
4.5 Smart sensor anatomy and purpose
4.6 Examples of self-powered sensors and ZED sensor research pipeline in 2024
4.7 Progress towards ZED with personal electronics, industrial and professional electronics
4.8 Examples of battery-based ZED personal and other electronics and electrics
4.9 Progress with ZED wearables

5. Strategies to achieve fit-and-forget battery-free ZED
5.1 Overview
5.2 Battery headwinds 2024-2044
5.3 ZED enablement
5.3.1 Eight ZED enablers that can be combined
5.3.2 ZED enabler: self-healing materials for fit-and-forget
5.3.3 Specification compromise with energy harvesting: battery-free perpetual micro-robot
5.3.4 Batteryless energy harvesting with demand management
5.3.5 Quest for battery less ZED in heterogenous cellular networks
5.3.6 Wireless sensor networks enable their ZED devices with severe performance compromises
5.3.7 Oppo view of zero power communications
5.3.8 ZED lessons from active RFID
5.4 Energy harvesting system design for ZED
5.4.1 Elements of a harvesting system
5.4.2 Energy harvesting system detail with improvement strategies 2024-2044
5.4.3 13 families of energy harvesting technology considered for ZED 2024-2044

6. Ultra-low power electronics, sensors, and electrics
6.1 Overview
6.2 Ultra-low power electronics
6.2.1 Ultra-low-power readout interfaces and multifunctional electronics
6.2.2 Ultra-low-power phononic in-sensor computing
6.2.3 Improved energy efficiency in 6G Communications: European Commission Hexa-X Project
6.2.4 Static context header compression and fragmentation for ZED
6.2.5 Other energy efficient sensing, processing and new power transfer options for IOT
6.3 Ultra-low power integrated circuits
6.3.1 Nanopower nPZero
6.3.2 Everactive ultra-low power circuits for ZED IOT
6.3.3 2nm chips and beyond – USA, Taiwan, China, Japan
6.3.4 Ericsson Research and MIT Lithionic chips
6.3.5 Move-X's MAMWLE: Ultra-low-power radio module
6.4 Ultra-low-power smartphone
6.5 Metamaterials and metasurfaces as ZED or enabling ZED
6.5.1 Definitions and scope
6.5.2 Metamaterial ZED window
6.5.3 Metasurfaces for 6G RIS ZED and other purposes
6.5.4 SWOT appraisal of 6G Communications RIS opportunities

7. Powering devices only when interrogated: backscatter, SWIPT, WIET, WPT for EAS, RFID, IOT, 6G Communications and other electronics
7.1 Overview: backscatter, EAS, RFID, 6G SWIPT
7.1.1 Forms of wireless power transfer enabling batteryless and less-battery devices
7.1.2 Backscatter communications
7.1.3 Evolution of wireless electronic communication devices needing no on-board energy storage 1980-2035
7.2 Ambient backscatter communications AmBC and Crowd-detectable CD-ZED
7.2.1 View of Aalto University on AmBC and CD-ZED
7.2.2 Orange AmBC and CD-ZED
7.2.3 Battery-free AmBC: University of California San Diego
7.2.4 Crowd-detectable CD-ZED research
7.3 Hybrid beamforming-based SWIPT
7.4 SWOT appraisal of circuits and infrastructure that eliminate storage
7.5 Further research: 47 recent papers

8. Harvesting electromagnetic waves: photovoltaics to power devices
8.1 Overview
8.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting toolkit by frequency: photovoltaics
8.3 Strategies for increasing photovoltaic output per unit volume and area 2024-2044
8.4 Some important parameters for ZED photovoltaics
8.5 Limits of single junction efficiency
8.6 PV cell efficiency trends
8.7 Experience curve of cost reduction
8.8 Some format options evolving 2024-2044
8.9 Photovoltaics by pn junction compared to other options 2024-2044
8.10 Perovskite photovoltaics
8.11 Integrated MEMS with photovoltaics as ZED
8.12 Photovoltaics feasible and affordable in more places: examples
8.13 Routes to battery-free solar ZED: tape, IOT, cameras
8.14 Transparent and opaque photovoltaics in smartwatches
8.15 Battery-free drone flight for sensing and IOT
8.16 SWOT appraisal of photovoltaics for ZED
8.17 Further research papers and events in 2024

9. Harvesting ambient electromagnetic waves: RF harvesting power for devices and communication by recycling existing emissions
9.1 Overview
9.2 Electromagnetic energy harvesting toolkit by frequency: RF
9.3 Devices harvesting ambient man-made RF emissions to produce on-board electricity
9.4 Basic RF harvester RFEH
9.5 Routes to RF harvester improvement
9.6 Results for various forms of RF harvester
9.7 Sensors and biometric access using RF harvesting
9.8 RF harvesting for wearables
9.9 Other recent advances in RF harvesting

10. Mechanical harvesting for devices (acoustic, vibration, linear and rotational motion) using electrodynamics, piezoelectrics, triboelectrics etc. Thermoelectrics, pyroelectrics, evaporative hydrovoltaics, microbial fuel cells (biofuel harvesting)
10.1 Overview
10.2 ZED energy harvesting technology beyond harvesting electromagnetic radiation 2024-2044
10.3 Sources of mechanical energy and harvesting options 2024-2044
10.4 GeorgiaTech comparison of some options
10.5 Vibration harvesting
10.5.1 General
10.5.2 Hitachi Rail battery-free ZED vibration sensor powered by electrodynamic energy harvesting
10.6 Harvesting infrasound
10.7 Kinetron and other electrodynamic (“electrokinetic”) harvesters typically harvesting infrasound
10.8 Push button harvesting
10.9 EnOcean building controls “no wires, no batteries, no limits” IOT
10.10 Zero Energy Development battery-free ZED
10.11 Transpiration electrokinetic harvesting for battery-free sensor power supply
10.12 Acoustic harvesting
10.13 Triboelectric energy harvesting of motion
10.14 Thermoelectric harvesting with SWOT appraisal
10.15 Hydrovoltaic harvesting
10.16 Flexible energy harvesting: biofuel cell skin sensor system
10.16 Research pipeline in 2024 and earlier

11. Multi-mode energy harvesting for devices
11.1 Overview
11.2 Multi-mode and multiple-source harvesting to reduce intermittency
11.2.1 Thermoelectric with photovoltaic
11.2.2 Photovoltaic with electrokinetic: Ressence Model 2 watch
11.2.3 Thermoelectric with photovoltaic and movement harvesting: DCO, Wurth and Analog Devices products
11.2.4 Push button harvesting with solar power and intermittency tolerant electronics BFree
11.3 Multi-mode harvesting research pipeline 2024 and earlier
11.4 SWOT appraisal of multi-mode energy harvesting for ZED

12. Supercapacitors, variants and massless energy for battery-free ZED
12.1 Overview
12.2 Spectrum of choice – capacitor to supercapacitor to battery
12.3 Lithium-ion capacitor features
12.4 Actual and potential major applications of supercapacitors and their derivatives 2024-2044
12.5 SWOT appraisal of batteryless storage technologies for ZED
12.6 Examples of ZED enabled by supercapacitors and variants
12.6.1 Bicycle dynamo with supercapacitor or electrolytic capacitor
12.6.2 IOT ZED enabled by LIC hybrid supercapacitor
12.6.3 Supercapacitors in medical devices
12.7 Massless energy – supercapacitor structural electronics
12.7.1 Review
12.7.2 Structural supercapacitors for aircraft: Imperial College London, Texas A&M University
12.7.3 Structural supercapacitors for boats and other applications: University of California San Diego
12.7.4 Structural supercapacitors for road vehicles: five research centers
12.7.5 Structural supercapacitors for electronics and devices: Vanderbilt University USA
12.7.6 Transparent structural supercapacitors on optoelectronic devices
12.8 Research pipeline: Supercapacitors
12.9 Research pipeline: Hybrid approaches
12.10 Research pipeline: Pseudocapacitors