Table of Content

1. Executive summary and conclusions
1.1 Purpose and scope of this report
1.2 Methodology of this analysis
1.3 20 Primary conclusions
1.4 Context of ZED: overlapping and adjacent technologies and examples of long-life energy independent devices
1.5 Primary 6G infrastructure and client devices becoming zero-energy and battery-free, longer life
1.5.1 Infrastructure: CP, IRS, RIS, relays etc.
1.5.2 Client devices/ edge computing: IOT, smartphones and derivatives, other
1.6 Primary enabling technologies for battery-free 6G ZED
1.6.1 Device architecture: 13 energy harvesting technologies, ultra-low-power electronics
1.6.2 Device battery-free storage: supercapacitors, LIC,
1.6.3 Smart materials: metamaterials, self-healing materials, structural electronics, “massless storage”
1.6.4 System: SWIPT, AmBC, CD-ZED other
1.7 Eight options that can be combined
1.8 Significance of Zero Energy Devices ZED in 6G Communications
1.9 Roadmap of 6G ZED and its enabling technologies 2024-2044
1.10 Market forecasts 2024-2044
1.10.1 6G ZED IOT vs other client devices compared to RFID, EAS units billion 2024-2044
1.10.2 Backscatter SWIPT ZED compared to RFID, EAS $ billion 2024-2044
1.10.3 6G ZED IRS compared to 6G ZED RIS market $ billion 2024-2044
1.10.4 6G RIS market by five types $ billion 2024-2044
1.10.5 Smartphones and derivatives ZED vs non-ZED numbers billion 2024-2044
1.10.6 X-Reality hardware market 6G ZED vs non-ZED versions $ billion 2024-2044
1.10.7 Background RIS forecasts 2024-2044

2. Introduction
2.1 Overview
2.2 6G basics
2.2.1 Background
2.2.2 Why do we need 6G?
2.2.3 Disruptive 6G aspects
2.2.4 Wireless powered IoE for 6G
2.2.5 Arguments against 6G
2.2.6 Challenges ahead: cost, runaway electricity consumption and frequency
2.2.7 SWOT appraisal of 6G Communications as currently understood
2.2.8 6G general roadmap 2024-2044
2.3 ZED needs and opportunities in 6G Phase 1 and 2
2.3.1 Background
2.3.2 Specific ZED needs in 6G communications
2.3.3 3GPP and Kristiaanstad University vision of options for 6G ZED and wireless powered IoE for 6G
2.3.4 Zero-Energy Device Networks With Wireless-Powered RIS
2.3.5 ZED Machine Type Communications MTC
2.3.7 Other ZED empowered 6G opportunities
2.3.6 Zero-energy air interface for advanced 5G and for 6G
2.3.7 Other ZED empowered 6G opportunities
2.3.8 First real-time backscatter communication demonstrated for 6G in 2023
2.4 Further reading relevant to 6G ZED 2024 and 2023

3. 6G ZED infrastructure and client device enabling technology: metamaterials, IRS, RIS, structural electronics
3.1 Metamaterials and metasurfaces enabling 6G ZED by providing zero and low power intelligent surfaces and solar enhancement
3.1.1 Overview of metamaterials, IRS and RIS
3.1.2 Example: Metamaterial IRS ZED window for 5G then 6G
3.1.3 Metamaterial toolkit primary examples, six formats and 6G ZED relevance
3.1.4 The meta-atom materials, design and patterning options
3.1.5 Commercial, operational, theoretical, structural options evolving for 6G use
3.1.6 Metamaterial manufacturing technologies matched to 6G RIS sub-THz, THz and optical versions
3.1.7 Metasurfaces for reconfigurable intelligent surfaces and other purposes
3.1.8 Primary materials used in 6G IRS and RIS
3.1.9 How a 6G RIS is constructed and how it operates
3.1.10 8 tuning device families for 6G RIS and their materials requirements
3.1.11 Trend from discrete boards, stacked films to full smart material integration, structural electronics
3.1.12 Metasurface energy harvesting enhancement useful for 6G ZED
3.2 Three SWOT appraisals of metamaterial-based 6G ZED technologies
3.2.1 SWOT appraisal for metamaterials and metasurfaces generally
3.2.2 SWOT appraisal that must guide future 6G RIS design including ZED versions
3.2.3 SWOT appraisal of 6G Communications IRS and RIS opportunities

4. 6G ZED enabling technology: Simultaneous wireless and information transfer SWIPT, Ambient backscatter communications technology AmBC, crowd-detectable zero energy devices CD-ZED
4.1 Overview: backscatter and SWIPT to enable 6G ZED
4.2 Hybrid beamforming-based SWIPT
4.3 Ambient backscatter communications AmBC and crowd detectable CD-ZED
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Orange AmBC and CD-ZED
4.3.3 Battery-free AmBC: University of California San Diego
4.3.4 Crowd-detectable CD-ZED research
4.3.5 Further research from 2024 and 2023 – 34 selected papers

5. 6G ZED enabling technology: energy harvesting for 6G infrastructure and client devices
5.1 Overview: changing needs and 13 technologies
5.1.1 Context
5.1.2 The increasing electricity consumption of electronics and matching harvesting for ZED
5.1.3 Energy harvesting performance comparison: power per unit volume
5.1.4 13 families of energy harvesting technology considered for ZED 2024-2044
5.2 Harvesting electromagnetic emissions: photovoltaic, ambient RF
5.2.1 Photovoltaic
5.2.2 Harvesting ambient RF power for devices and communication by recycling existing emissions
5.3 Harvesting mechanical emissions: infrasound, acoustic, vibration, other motion using electrodynamic, piezoelectric, triboelectric, other technologies
5.3.1 Overview
5.3.2 Electrodynamic
5.3.3 Piezoelectric
5.3.4 Triboelectric
5.3.5 Other
5.4 Thermoelectric, pyroelectric, hydrovoltaic, biofuel cell and other options
5.4.1 Overview
5.4.2 Thermoelectric
5.4.2 Pyroelectric
5.4.3 Thermal hydrovoltaic
5.4.4 Biofuel cell
5.4.5 Other options

6. Ultra-low power electronics and electrics to make 6G ZED more feasible
6.1 Overview
6.2 System level energy saving
6.2.1 Intermittency tolerant electronics Bfree
6.2.2 Ultra-low-power phononic in-sensor computing
6.2.3 Improved energy efficiency in 6G Communications: European Commission Hexa-X Project
6.2.4 Static context header compression and fragmentation for ZED
6.2.5 Wireless sensor networks
6.2.6 Ultra-low power radio module and smartphone
6.2.7 Other energy efficient sensing, processing and new power transfer options for 6G and IOT
6.3 Component-level energy saving: Ultra-low power integrated circuits, low power displays and other
6.3.1 Overview
6.3.2 Ultra-low power integrated circuits
6.3.3 Low power displays and other

7. Battery elimination, supercapacitors, variants and massless energy for battery-free 6G ZED
7.1 Overview
7.2 Spectrum of choice – capacitor to supercapacitor to battery
7.3 Lithium-ion capacitor features
7.4 Actual and potential major applications of supercapacitors and their derivatives 2024-2044
7.5 SWOT appraisal of batteryless storage technologies for ZED
7.6 Examples of ZED enabled by supercapacitors and variants
7.6.1 Bicycle dynamo with supercapacitor or electrolytic capacitor
7.6.2 IOT ZED enabled by LIC hybrid supercapacitor
7.6.3 Supercapacitors in medical devices
7.7 Massless energy – supercapacitor structural electronics
7.7.1 Review
7.7.2 Imperial College London, Texas A&M University, University of California San Diego, 5 others
7.7.3 Structural supercapacitors for electronics and devices: Vanderbilt University USA
7.7.4 Transparent structural supercapacitors on optoelectronic devices
7.8 Research pipeline: Supercapacitors
7.9 Research pipeline: Hybrid approaches
7.10 Research pipeline: Pseudocapacitors